The Field of Psychology

Contents

• Domain
• Approach
• Influences upon
• Biology
• Behavior
• Development
• Systemic Factors
• Psychology of Personality
• Social Psychology
• Diagnoses
• Specializations
• Employment

See Also:

• Academic Writing
• Research
• Biology

Domain

1. Biological Domain: This domain focuses on the study of biological factors that influence behavior and mental processes. It includes research on genetics, neuroanatomy, physiology, and pharmacology.
2. Cognitive Domain: The cognitive domain investigates mental processes such as perception, attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making.
3. Developmental Domain: This domain examines the psychological and physical changes that occur throughout the human lifespan, from infancy to old age. It includes research on cognitive, social, emotional, and moral development.
4. Social and Personality Domain: The social and personality domain explores how individuals think about themselves and others, as well as their interactions with other people. It includes research on personality traits, interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, and social influence.
5. Mental and Physical Health Domain: This domain focuses on understanding mental health disorders and promoting positive mental and physical health. It includes research on diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of various mental and physical health conditions.

Approach

1. Psychodynamic Psychology:
   • Key Figure: Sigmund Freud
   • Focus: Emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior and personality.
   • Methods: Freudian psychoanalysis, dream analysis, and free association.
2. Humanistic Psychology:
   • Key Figures: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers
   • Focus: Stresses individual potential for growth, self-actualization, and the importance of personal choice and responsibility.
   • Methods: Client-centered therapy, positive psychology.
3. Behavioral Psychology:
   • Key Figures: B.F. Skinner, John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov
   • Focus: Studies observable behaviors and the environmental factors that influence them, rejecting the emphasis on internal mental processes.
   • Methods: Operant conditioning, classical conditioning, behavior modification.
4. Cognitive Psychology:
   • Key Figures: Ulric Neisser, George Miller
   • Focus: Examines mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and language, emphasizing the role of internal mental structures.
   • Methods: Experimental research, cognitive-behavioral therapy.
5. Biological Psychology:
   • Focus: Explores the biological basis of behavior and mental processes, including the role of the brain, neurotransmitters, genetics, and hormones.
   • Methods: Brain imaging, genetic studies, physiological measurements.

Methods

1. Descriptive Methods:
   • Purpose: To observe and describe behavior without influencing it.
   • Examples: Observational studies, case studies, surveys, content analysis.
   • Characteristics: Provides a detailed account of behavior or phenomena but doesn't establish cause-and-effect relationships.
2. Correlational Methods:
   • Purpose: To examine the relationship between two or more variables.
   • Examples: Surveys, naturalistic observations.
   • Characteristics: Identifies patterns and associations but does not imply causation.
3. Experimental Methods:
   • Purpose: To establish cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one or more variables.
   • Examples: Randomized controlled trials, laboratory experiments.
   • Characteristics: Involves manipulation of an independent variable and observation of its effects on a dependent variable, with random assignment to control for confounding factors.
4. Ethics in Psychological Research:
   • Importance: Protects the well-being and rights of research participants, ensures research is conducted with integrity.
   • Guidelines: Informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing, protection from harm, voluntary participation.
   • Institutional Review Board (IRB): Many institutions have ethical review boards that evaluate and approve research proposals to ensure they meet ethical standards.

Influences Upon

Human psychology is shaped by a complex interplay of various influences, and understanding these factors is essential for comprehending human behavior.

1. Biological Influences:
   • Genetics: Inherited genetic traits contribute to aspects of personality, intelligence, and susceptibility to certain psychological disorders.
   • Neurochemistry: Brain function and neurotransmitter activity influence mood, cognition, and behavior.
   • Hormones: Hormonal changes, such as those during puberty or pregnancy, can affect emotions and behavior.
2. Psychological Influences:
   • Cognitive Processes: Mental processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving shape how individuals interpret and respond to the world.
   • Emotional Factors: Emotions and emotional intelligence play a significant role in decision-making, interpersonal relationships, and overall well-being.
   • Individual Differences: Personality traits, coping mechanisms, and defense mechanisms contribute to psychological diversity.
3. Cultural Influences:
   • Norms and Values: Cultural norms and values shape individuals' beliefs, behaviors, and social interactions.
   • Socialization: The process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, norms, and behaviors of their culture.
   • Cultural Identity: Cultural background influences self-concept, identity, and worldview.
4. Systemic Influences:
   • Social Systems: Societal structures, institutions, and systems impact individual and group behavior.
   • Economic Factors: Socioeconomic status can affect access to resources, opportunities, and mental health.
   • Political and Legal Systems: Laws and policies shape the context in which individuals live and influence psychological well-being.

Biology

1. Nervous System:
   • Central Nervous System (CNS):
     • Brain: The command center of the nervous system, responsible for processing information, initiating actions, and regulating bodily functions. It consists of various regions with specialized functions, such as the frontal lobe for executive functions and the hippocampus for memory.
     • Spinal Cord: Connects the brain to the peripheral nervous system and facilitates the transmission of signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
   • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
     • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Regulates involuntary bodily functions, including heartbeat, digestion, and respiratory rate. Divided into the sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) branches.
     • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary muscle movements and transmits sensory information to the CNS.
2. Brain Structure and Function:
   • Different Brain Regions:
     • Frontal Lobe: Involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and social behavior. Contains the prefrontal cortex, crucial for executive functions.
     • Temporal Lobe: Associated with auditory processing and memory formation. Includes the hippocampus.
     • Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information and spatial awareness.
     • Occipital Lobe: Responsible for visual processing.
     • Limbic System: Includes the amygdala (emotion) and hippocampus (memory).
     • Basal Ganglia: Involved in motor control and procedural learning.
   • Neurotransmitters:
     • Serotonin: Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.
     • Dopamine: Influences motivation, reward, and pleasure.
     • Norepinephrine: Affects alertness and arousal.
3. Endocrine System:
   • Hormones:
     • Released by Glands: Various glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands, release hormones into the bloodstream.
     • Impact on Psychology: Hormones influence mood, stress response, growth, metabolism, and reproductive processes.
   • Pituitary Gland:
     • Master Gland: Regulates other endocrine glands.
     • Growth Hormone: Stimulates growth and development.
4. Genetics and Environmental Influences:
   • Genetics:
     • Genetic Material: Inherited traits from parents, including DNA and genes.
     • Behavioral Genetics: Examines the role of genetics in behavior, personality, and mental health.
   • Epigenetics:
     • Environmental Impact: External factors can influence gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence.
     • Developmental Outcomes: Epigenetic changes can affect psychological traits and susceptibility to certain disorders.
   • Nature vs. Nurture:
     • Interaction: Both genetic predispositions and environmental experiences contribute to psychological development.
     • Critical Periods: Sensitive periods in development where environmental influences have a profound impact.

Behavior

1. Classical Conditioning:
   • Definition: Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an involuntary response through repeated pairing with a stimulus that naturally evokes the response.
   • Key Concepts:
     • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers an involuntary response.
     • Unconditioned Response (UR): The involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus.
     • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially a neutral stimulus, it becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
     • Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
   • Example: In Pavlov's classic experiment, a dog learns to associate the sound of a bell (CS) with the presentation of food (US). Over time, the bell alone can elicit salivation (CR), even without the presence of food.
2. Operant Conditioning:
   • Definition: Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of one's actions. Behavior is strengthened or weakened based on the positive or negative consequences it produces.
   • Key Concepts:
     • Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
       • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a positive stimulus to encourage a behavior.
       • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to encourage a behavior.
     • Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
       • Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus.
       • Negative Punishment: Removing a positive stimulus.
   • Example: If a student is praised (positive reinforcement) for completing homework, the likelihood of them completing future assignments may increase. Conversely, if they lose a privilege (negative punishment) for not completing homework, the behavior might decrease.
3. Learning by Watching Others (Observational Learning):
   • Definition: Observational learning involves acquiring new behaviors or information by watching and imitating others.
   • Key Concepts:
     • Modeling: Individuals observe the behavior of a model and imitate it.
     • Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment: Observers learn from the consequences experienced by the model.
   • Example: A child learning to tie their shoes by watching a parent or a student adopting study habits by observing classmates can be instances of observational learning. Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated how children imitated aggressive behavior modeled by adults.

Development

1. Socioemotional Development:
   • Social Development: Involves the acquisition of social skills, relationships, and understanding societal norms.
   • Emotional Development: Pertains to the recognition and regulation of emotions, empathy, and the development of interpersonal relationships.
   • Identity Formation: The process of establishing a sense of self and one's place in the world.
2. Physical Development:
   • Gross Motor Skills: Involves large muscle movements, like walking and running.
   • Fine Motor Skills: Involves smaller, precise muscle movements, such as hand-eye coordination.
   • Puberty and Growth Spurts: Marked by hormonal changes and physical maturation.
3. Cognitive Development:
   • Piaget's Stages: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.
   • Language Acquisition: The development of communication skills and language comprehension.
   • Critical Periods: Windows of time during which certain cognitive skills are more easily acquired.
4. Mitigating Factors:
   • Drugs and Alcohol:
     • Substance abuse during pregnancy can lead to developmental issues in the fetus.
     • Substance abuse in adolescence can impair cognitive and socioemotional development.
   • Race:
     • Societal factors related to race, such as discrimination, can impact opportunities and influence development.
   • Socioeconomic Status:
     • Access to resources, quality education, and healthcare can vary based on socioeconomic status, affecting overall development.
   • Sex and Gender:
     • Biological sex influences physical development, while gender roles and expectations can impact socioemotional development.
   • Culture:
     • Cultural norms, values, and practices shape cognitive, socioemotional, and physical development.

Systemic Factors

1. Education:
   • Education is a fundamental factor in cognitive development. Access to quality education provides individuals with the knowledge and skills needed for critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.
   • Schools serve as environments for socialization, where individuals learn social skills, cooperation, and develop relationships.
   • Disparities in educational opportunities can lead to inequalities in cognitive development and socialization.
2. Healthcare:
   • Access to healthcare services is vital for maintaining physical health, which, in turn, influences behavior.
   • Adequate healthcare, including mental health services, contributes to emotional well-being and behavioral regulation.
   • Disparities in access to healthcare can result in unequal health outcomes and impact behavior.
3. Affordable Housing:
   • Living in stable and secure housing positively affects mental health and overall well-being.
   • The neighborhood and community associated with affordable housing can influence social behavior and interactions.
   • Lack of affordable housing may lead to stress, instability, and negatively impact behavior.
   • High-crime or impoverished neighborhoods can pose challenges to positive behavior.
4. Proper Nutrition:
   • Adequate nutrition supports cognitive development and functioning.
   • Proper nutrition contributes to mood regulation and emotional well-being.
   • Lack of access to nutritious food can lead to physical and mental health issues, impacting behavior.
   • Poor nutrition, whether due to lack of access or poor food choices, can hinder overall development.

Psychology of Personality

1. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem:
   • Self-Concept: The self-concept refers to an individual's perception of themselves, including their beliefs, values, abilities, and roles in different contexts.
     • Influence on Personality: How individuals see themselves shapes their behaviors, choices, and interactions with others.
   • Self-Esteem: Self-esteem involves the overall evaluation and subjective feelings of worth that individuals have about themselves.
     • Influence on Personality: High self-esteem is associated with confidence, resilience, and positive social interactions, while low self-esteem may contribute to anxiety and low motivation.
2. Psychodynamic Perspective:
   • Emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts in shaping personality.
   • Defense Mechanisms: Mechanisms like repression, projection, and displacement help individuals cope with anxiety.
3. Humanistic Perspective:
   • Self-Actualization: The innate drive to realize one's full potential.
4. Social Cognitive Perspective:
   • Observational Learning: Individuals learn by observing and imitating others.
   • Reciprocal Determinism: Interaction between personal factors, behavior, and the environment influences personality.
5. Trait Approaches:
   • Trait Theory: Personality is composed of stable and enduring traits.
   • Big Five Traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
6. Personality Assessment:
   • Objective Tests: Standardized self-report measures (e.g., MMPI, NEO-PI).
   • Projective Tests: Ambiguous stimuli elicit responses that reveal unconscious processes (e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test).
7. Observational Methods:
   • Behavioral Observations: Directly observing and recording behavior in natural or controlled settings.
   • Interviews:
     • Structured Interviews: Pre-determined questions.
     • Unstructured Interviews: Open-ended questions.
8. Biological Influences on Personality:
   • Genetics:
   • Brain Structure and Neurotransmitters:
   • Hormones:

Social Psychology

• Social Cognition: This involves the mental processes related to perceiving, interpreting, and understanding information about oneself and others in a social context, encompassing processes like perception, attention, memory, and decision-making.
• Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination: Stereotypes are generalized beliefs about the characteristics of social groups, while prejudice is a positive or negative attitude toward a group, and discrimination involves unjust or prejudicial treatment based on group membership.
• Implicit and Explicit Bias: Implicit bias refers to unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence behavior, while explicit bias involves conscious beliefs and attitudes that individuals are aware of and can express openly.
• Attitudes: Attitudes are evaluations or feelings toward a person, idea, situation, or object, which can be positive, negative, or neutral. Subjective construal involves interpreting information subjectively based on attitudes and personal experiences.
• Obedience: Obedience is the tendency to comply with instructions or orders from authority figures, as demonstrated in studies like Milgram's obedience experiments.
• Conformity: Conformity is the tendency to adjust behavior or opinions to align with those of a group, often due to social pressure, as observed in Asch's conformity experiments.
• Cognitive Dissonance: Cognitive dissonance arises when individuals experience discomfort due to conflicting beliefs or attitudes, leading them to resolve the conflict through various means.
• Attributions: Attributions involve the explanations people give for the causes of events or behaviors, distinguishing between internal (personal factors) and external (situational factors) attributions.

Diagnoses

DSM-5 Disorders Categories:

• Neurodevelopmental disorders: Autism spectrum disorder, Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders
• Bipolar and related disorders: Bipolar I disorder
• Depressive disorders: Major depressive disorder
• Anxiety disorders: Panic disorder, Obsessive-compulsive disorder, Posttraumatic stress disorder, Dissociative amnesia
• Somatic symptom and related disorders: Illness anxiety disorder
• Feeding and eating disorders: Anorexia nervosa, Enuresis (bed-wetting)
• Sleep-wake disorders: Narcolepsy
• Sexual dysfunctions: Erectile disorder, Gender dysphoria in adolescents and adults
• Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders: Pyromania
• Substance-related and addictive disorders: Alcohol use disorder
• Neurocognitive disorders: Mild neurocognitive disorder (dementia)
• Personality disorders: Borderline personality disorder
• Paraphilic disorders: Exhibitionist disorder

Specializations

Divisions of Psychology	According to APA
General Psychology	Teaching of Psychology
Experimental Psychology and Cognitive Science	Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology	Developmental Psychology
Personality and Social Psychology	Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI)
Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts	Clinical Psychology
Consulting Psychology	Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Educational Psychology	School Psychology
Counseling Psychology	Psychologists in Public Service
Military Psychology	Adult Development and Aging
Applied Experimental and Engineering Psychology	Rehabilitation Psychology
Consumer Psychology	Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology
Behavior Analysis	History of Psychology
Community Research and Action: Division of Community Psychology	Psychopharmacology and Substance Use
Advancement of Psychotherapy	Psychological Hypnosis
State, Provincial and Territorial Psychological Association Affairs	Humanistic Psychology
Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities/Autism Spectrum Disorder	Environmental, Population and Conservation Psychology
Psychology of Women	Psychology of Religion and Spirituality
Child and Family Policy and Practice	Health Psychology
Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Psychology	Clinical Neuropsychology
American Psychology-Law Society	Psychologists in Independent Practice
Couple and Family Psychology	Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity
Psychological Study of Culture, Ethnicity and Race	Media Psychology and Technology
Sport, Exercise and Performance Psychology	Study of Peace, Conflict and Violence: Peace Psychology Division
Group Psychology and Group Psychotherapy	Addiction Psychology
Psychological Study of Men and Masculinities	International Psychology
Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology	Pediatric Psychology
Prescribing Psychology	Trauma Psychology

Employment

Psychology Bachelor's Degree: Selected Workforce Occupations

Related to Children

• Assistant youth coordinator
• Behavior analyst
• Career counselor
• Career planning and placement advisor
• Child-care worker
• Child-protection worker
• Day care—center supervisor
• Foster home parent
• Residential youth counselor
• Youth minister

Related to Communications/Writing

• Film researcher/copywriter
• Historical research assistant
• Media buyer
• Newspaper reporter
• Public affairs coordinator
• Public information officer
• Public relations specialist
• Radio/TV research assistant
• Technical writer

Related to Government/Public Service

• Congressional aide
• Intelligence officer
• Lobbying organizer
• Political campaign worker
• Director of volunteer services
• Fast-food restaurant manager
• Hotel management
• Intellectual disability unit manager
• Nursing home administrator
• Program manager

Related to Management

• Administrative assistant
• Advertising agent
• Advertising trainee
• Events coordinator
• Management trainee
• Marketing representative
• Marketing researcher
• Office manager
• Small business owner
• Store manager
• Warehouse manager

Related to Data Management/Research

• Energy researcher
• Director of fundraising
• Financial researcher
• Laboratory assistant
• Property management
• Publications researcher
• Research assistant
• Statistical reports compiler
• Statistical assistant
• Urban planning research assistant

Related to the Military

• Veterans’ advisor
• Administrative assistant
• Advertising agent
• Advertising trainee
• Events coordinator
• Management trainee
• Marketing representative
• Marketing researcher
• Office manager
• Small business owner
• Store manager
• Warehouse manager

Related to Criminal Populations

• Corrections officer
• Crime-prevention coordinator
• Juvenile probation officer
• Law enforcement officer
• Parole officer
• Probation officer
• Security officer
• Camp staff director
• Community organizer
• Community recreation worker
• Community relations officer
• Neighborhood outreach worker
• Parks and recreation director
• Task force coordinator
• Volunteer coordinator
• Work activity program director

Related to Human Services

• Camp staff director
• Community organizer
• Community recreation worker
• Community relations officer
• Neighborhood outreach worker
• Parks and recreation director
• Task force coordinator
• Volunteer coordinator
• Work activity program director

Related to Human Resources

• Affirmative action representative
• Employee counselor
• Employee relations assistant
• Human resources director
• Human resources recruiter
• Job analyst
• Occupational analyst
• Personnel worker/administrator
• Staff trainer and developer

Related to Education

• Driving instructor
• Educational coordinator
• Private tutor
• Secondary school teacher
• Teacher

Related to Customer Service

• Airline reservations clerk
• Bank manager
• Claims specialist
• Customer relations agent
• Customer service representative
• Hospital patient service representative
• Insurance agent
• Insurance claims/underwriter
• Loan officer
• Sales representative

Employment Opportunities for Master's Degree Graduates

In Higher Education

• Community college teacher
• Four-year college adjunct teacher
• Academic adviser or academic recruiter
• Career counselor
• Rehabilitation counselor

In Government-Sponsored Human Services

• Vocational rehabilitation specialist
• Substance abuse counselor
• Human resource manager
• Parole officer

In Clinical Contexts

• Behavioral counselor
• Health-care coordinator
• Mental health technician
• Mental health therapist
• Rehabilitation specialist
• Group home supervisor
• Child-protection specialist
• Child-care program manager

In Business Contexts

• Human resource manager
• Employee developer
• Advertising and marketing specialist
• Public relations specialist
• Project manager
• Sales representative
• Store manager